Adrenergic Regulation of Vascular Smooth Muscle

Abstract

The sections in this article are: 1 Morphology of Adrenergic Innervation 2 Adrenergic Transmission: Presynaptic and Synaptic Events 2.1 Transmitter Synthesis, Storage, and Release 2.1.1 Synthesis 2.1.2 Control of Synthesis 2.1.3 Storage 2.1.4 Release 2.2 Mode of Transmitter Release 2.2.1 Partial Content Release 2.2.2 Total Content Release 2.3 Feedback Control of Transmitter Release 2.3.1 Characteristics of Pre- and Postsynaptic α-Adrenergic Receptors 2.3.2 Effect of Altering Concentration of Endogenous Norepinephrine 2.3.3 Mechanism and Purpose 2.4 Transmitter Distribution and Movement 2.4.1 Movement of Transmitter Released from Nerve Plexus 2.4.2 Movement of Exogenously Applied Transmitter Toward Nerve Plexus 2.4.3 Distribution, Movement, and Effectiveness of Exogenous Norepinephrine: Influence of Surface of Entry 2.5 Transmitter Concentrations During Neural Activity 2.5.1 Diffusion of One Quantum of Norepinephrine in Extracellular Space 2.5.2 Steady-State Transmitter Concentrations 2.6 Transmitter Disposition and Termination of Its Effect 2.6.1 Diffusion 2.6.2 Neuronal Uptake 2.6.3 Extraneuronal Uptake and Binding 2.6.4 Metabolism 2.6.5 Relative Importance of Disposition Pathways 2.6.6 Relaxation in Oil Immersion 2.6.7 Relaxation in Saline 2.6.8 Metabolic Patterns 2.6.9 Histological and Histochemical Procedures 2.6.10 Modification of Contractile Response to Endogenous and Exogenous Norepinephrine 2.6.11 Summary of Disposition and Inactivation Mechanism 3 Adrenergic Transmission: Postsynaptic Events 3.1 Receptor Analysis and Variation 3.1.1 Receptor Characterization 3.1.2 Receptor Distribution 3.1.3 Effects of Neurogenic vs. Circulating Catecholamines 3.2 Bimodal Transmitter Action 3.3 Contractile Properties of Endothelium 4 Functional Consequences of Variation in Vascular Neuroeffector Apparatus 4.1 Synaptic Cleft Width 4.2 Innervation Density 4.2.1 Definition of Density 4.2.2 Varicosity Density 4.2.3 Norepinephrine Content 4.3 Innervation Distribution 5 Functional Description of Specific Vessels 6 Adrenergic Neuron in Hypertension 6.1 Changes in Presynaptic Mechanisms 6.1.1 Morphology 6.1.2 Sinoaortic Denervated Rabbits 6.1.3 Rabbits with Partial Constriction of Abdominal Aorta 6.1.4 Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats 6.2 Neurogenic Transmission and Postsynaptic Function 6.2.1 Rabbits with Partial Constriction of Abdominal Aorta 6.2.2 Renal Hypertensive Rats and Dogs 6.2.3 Doca and Salt Hypertensive Rats and Dogs 6.2.4 Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats 6.3 Distribution of Adrenergic Transmitter in Hypertensive Arteries 6.4 Plasma Norepinephrine and Dopamine β-Hydroxylase Levels 6.4.1 Sinoaortic Denervated Rats 6.4.2 Doca Rats 6.4.3 Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats 6.4.4 Human Primary Hypertension 6.5 Interpretation of Changes in Adrenergic Mechanisms 6.5.1 Primary Changes in Postganglionic Adrenergic Neuron 6.5.2 Secondary Changes in Postganglionic Adrenergic Neuron 7 Development of Adrenergic Control: Trophic Regulation 7.1 Ontogenetic Development of Innervation of Blood Vessels 7.2 Specificity of Adrenergic Innervation of Blood Vessels 7.3 Smooth Muscle Specificity for Nerve 7.4 Interactions of Nerve and Smooth Muscle 7.5 Influence of Adrenergic Nerves on Smooth Muscle 7.6 Influence of Smooth Muscle on Adrenergic Nerves 7.7 Factors Influencing Development and Maturation of Peripheral Sympathetic Nerve Terminals 7.7.1 Preganglionic Influences on Adrenergic Neurons 7.7.2 Effect of Target Organs on Sympathetic Neuron Development 7.7.3 Development of Sympathetic Terminals 7.7.4 Nerve Growth Factor 7.8 Regulation of Sympathetic Function in Adults 7.9 Morphological and Functional Plasticity of Adrenergic Neurons