A source-to-dose assessment of population exposures to fine PM and ozone in Philadelphia, PA, during a summer 1999 episode

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Abstract
A novel source-to-dose modeling study of population exposures to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ozone (O3) was conducted for urban Philadelphia. The study focused on a 2-week episode, 11–24 July 1999, and employed the new integrated and mechanistically consistent source-to-dose modeling framework of MENTOR/SHEDS (Modeling Environment for Total Risk studies/Stochastic Human Exposure and Dose Simulation). The MENTOR/SHEDS application presented here consists of four components involved in estimating population exposure/dose: (1) calculation of ambient outdoor concentrations using emission-based photochemical modeling, (2) spatiotemporal interpolation for developing census-tract level outdoor concentration fields, (3) calculation of microenvironmental concentrations that match activity patterns of the individuals in the population of each census tract in the study area, and (4) population-based dosimetry modeling. It was found that the 50th percentiles of calculated microenvironmental concentrations of PM2.5 and O3 were significantly correlated with census-tract level outdoor concentrations, respectively. However, while the 95th percentiles of O3 microenvironmental concentrations were strongly correlated with outdoor concentrations, this was not the case for PM2.5. By further examining the modeled estimates of the 24-h aggregated PM2.5 and O3 doses, it was found that indoor PM2.5 sources dominated the contributions to the total PM2.5 doses for the upper 5 percentiles, Environmental Tobacco Smoking (ETS) being the most significant source while O3 doses due to time spent outdoors dominated the contributions to the total O3 doses for the upper 5 percentiles. The MENTOR/SHEDS system presented in this study is capable of estimating intake dose based on activity level and inhalation rate, thus completing the source-to-dose modeling sequence. The MENTOR/SHEDS system also utilizes a consistent basis of source characterization, exposure factors, and human activity patterns in conducting population exposure assessment of multiple co-occurring air pollutants, and this constitutes a primary distinction from previous studies of population exposure assessment, where different exposure factors and activity patterns would be used for different pollutants. Future work will focus on incorporating the effects of commuting patterns on population exposure/dose assessments as well as on extending the MENTOR/SHEDS applications to seasonal/annual studies and to other areas in the U.S.