Coral reefs — a challenging ecosystem for human societies

Abstract

Coral reefs are exploited for subsistence and local market uses in 100 of the 160 states that are members of the United Nations. Reefs are stressed by natural events and demographic pressures. In some places they have been seriously degraded by a combination of global market demands and tourism. During the last three decades coral reefs have been affected by two major ecological disturbances: Crown-of-Thorns starfish outbreaks and coral bleaching. This article discusses the controversy over natural and human-induced impacts in the context of predicted greenhouse effects and other global changes.