Patterns of change in withdrawal symptoms, desire to smoke, reward motivation and response inhibition across 3 months of smoking abstinence
Open Access
- 7 April 2009
- Vol. 104 (5), 850-858
- https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02522.x
Abstract
Aims We have demonstrated previously that acute smoking abstinence is associated with lowered reward motivation and impaired response inhibition. This prospective study explores whether these impairments, along with withdrawal‐related symptoms, recover over 3 months of sustained abstinence. Design Participants completed a 12‐hour abstinent baseline assessment and were then allocated randomly to quit unaided or continue smoking. All were re‐tested after 7 days, 1 month and 3 months. Successful quitters' scores were compared with those of continuing smokers, who were tested after ad libitum smoking. Setting Goldsmiths, University of London. Participants A total of 33 smokers who maintained abstinence to 3 months, and 31 continuing smokers. Measurements Indices demonstrated previously in this cohort of smokers to be sensitive to the effect of nicotine versus acute abstinence: reward motivation [Snaith–Hamilton pleasure scale (SHAPS), Card Arranging Reward Responsivity Objective Test (CARROT), Stroop], tasks of response inhibition [anti‐saccade task; Continuous Performance Task (CPT)], clinical indices of mood [Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS)], withdrawal symptoms [Mood and Physical Symptoms Scale (MPSS)] and desire to smoke. Findings SHAPS anhedonia and reward responsivity (CARROT) showed significant improvement and plateaued after a month of abstinence, not differing from the scores of continuing smokers tested in a satiated state. Mood, other withdrawal symptoms and desire to smoke all declined from acute abstinence to 1 month of cessation and were equivalent to, or lower than, the levels reported by continuing, satiated smokers. Neither group showed a change in CPT errors over time while continuing smokers, but not abstainers, showed improved accuracy on the anti‐saccade task at 3 months. Conclusion Appetitive processes and related affective states appear to improve in smokers who remain nicotine‐free for 3 months, whereas response inhibition does not. Although in need of replication, the results suggest tentatively that poor inhibitory control may constitute a long‐term risk factor for relapse and could be a target for intervention.This publication has 43 references indexed in Scilit:
- Increases in impulsivity following smoking abstinence are related to baseline nicotine intake and boredom susceptibilityAddictive Behaviors, 2007
- Life before and after quitting smoking: An electronic diary study.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 2006
- Effects of quitting smoking on EEG activation and attention last for more than 31 days and are more severe with stress, dependence, DRD2 A1 allele, and depressive traitsNicotine & Tobacco Research, 2004
- Selective Processing of Smoking-Related Cues in Current Smokers, Ex-Smokers and Never-Smokers on the Modified Stroop TaskJournal of Psychopharmacology, 2003
- Mood disturbance fails to resolve across 31 days of cigarette abstinence in women.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 2002
- A smoke cloud of confusion.American Psychologist, 2000
- Smoking Cessation Leads to Reduced Stress, but Why?International Journal of the Addictions, 1995
- Saccadic system functioning among schizophrenia patients and their first-degree biological relatives.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1994
- The Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence: a revision of the Fagerstrom Tolerance QuestionnaireBritish Journal of Addiction, 1991
- The Hospital Anxiety and Depression ScaleActa Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 1983