Molluscan evidence of warm sea temperatures in New Zealand during Kapitean (Late Miocene) and Waipipian (Middle Pliocene) time

Abstract

Very cool sea temperatures have been suggested for the New Zealand Kapitean Stage from the evidence of planktonic Foraminiferida and for the Waipipian Stage on the basis of Foraminiferida, spores and pollen and oxygen isotopes, and the former has been used as evidence for a late Miocene glaciation. The Mollusca in rocks of these stages include several genera now living only to the north of New Zealand, and there is no molluscan evidence of lowered sea temperatures at these times. Planktonic foraminiferal faunas occurring with Kapitean molluscs vary markedly, and a 63% sinistral Globigerina pachyderma population from East Cape occurs with Amphistegina and Conus. Probably the ecology of planktonic foraminifers is not well enough known for them to be used as direct temperature indicators.