The antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities of Spirulina: an overview
Top Cited Papers
- 3 June 2016
- journal article
- review article
- Published by Springer Science and Business Media LLC in Archives of Toxicology
- Vol. 90 (8), 1817-1840
- https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-016-1744-5
Abstract
Spirulina is a species of filamentous cyanobacteria that has long been used as a food supplement. In particular, Spirulina platensis and Spirulina maxima are the most important. Thanks to a high protein and vitamin content, Spirulina is used as a nutraceutical food supplement, although its other potential health benefits have attracted much attention. Oxidative stress and dysfunctional immunity cause many diseases in humans, including atherosclerosis, cardiac hypertrophy, heart failure, and hypertension. Thus, the antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities of these microalgae may play an important role in human health. Here, we discuss the antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities of Spirulina in both animals and humans, along with the underlying mechanisms. In addition, its commercial and regulatory status in different countries is discussed as well. Spirulina activates cellular antioxidant enzymes, inhibits lipid peroxidation and DNA damage, scavenges free radicals, and increases the activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase. Notably, there appears to be a threshold level above which Spirulina will taper off the antioxidant activity. Clinical trials show that Spirulina prevents skeletal muscle damage under conditions of exercise-induced oxidative stress and can stimulate the production of antibodies and up- or downregulate the expression of cytokine-encoding genes to induce immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory responses. The molecular mechanism(s) by which Spirulina induces these activities is unclear, but phycocyanin and β-carotene are important molecules. Moreover, Spirulina effectively regulates the ERK1/2, JNK, p38, and IκB pathways. This review provides new insight into the potential therapeutic applications of Spirulina and may provide new ideas for future studies.Keywords
This publication has 113 references indexed in Scilit:
- Protective Role of Spirulina platensis against Acute Deltamethrin-Induced Toxicity in RatsPLOS ONE, 2013
- Effects of C-phycocyanin and Spirulina on Salicylate-Induced Tinnitus, Expression of NMDA Receptor and Inflammatory GenesPLOS ONE, 2013
- A Spirulina-Enhanced Diet Provides Neuroprotection in an α-Synuclein Model of Parkinson's DiseasePLOS ONE, 2012
- Modulation of DNA damage and alteration of gene expression during aflatoxicosis via dietary supplementation of Spirulina (Arthrospira) and whey protein concentrateEcotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 2012
- Spirulinain Clinical Practice: Evidence-Based Human ApplicationsEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2011
- Spirulina (Arthrospira) industry in Inner Mongolia of China: current status and prospectsJournal of Applied Phycology, 2010
- Hypolipidemic, Antioxidant, and Antiinflammatory Activities of Microalgae SpirulinaCardiovascular Therapeutics, 2010
- Protective effects of Spirulina maxima on hyperlipidemia and oxidative-stress induced by lead acetate in the liver and kidneyLipids in Health and Disease, 2010
- β-Carotene inhibits inflammatory gene expression in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages by suppressing redox-based NF-κB activationExperimental & Molecular Medicine, 2005
- Selective Inhibition of Cyclooxygenase-2 by C-Phycocyanin, a Biliprotein from Spirulina platensisBiochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 2000