Combining hypoxia-activated prodrugs and radiotherapy in silico: Impact of treatment scheduling and the intra-tumoural oxygen landscape

Abstract

Hypoxia-activated prodrugs (HAPs) present a conceptually elegant approach to not only overcome, but better yet, exploit intra-tumoural hypoxia. Despite being successful in vitro and in vivo, HAPs are yet to achieve successful results in clinical settings. It has been hypothesised that this lack of clinical success can, in part, be explained by the insufficiently stringent clinical screening selection of determining which tumours are suitable for HAP treatments. Taking a mathematical modelling approach, we investigate how tumour properties and HAP-radiation scheduling influence treatment outcomes in simulated tumours. The following key results are demonstrated in silico: (i) HAP and ionising radiation (IR) monotherapies may attack tumours in dissimilar, and complementary, ways. (ii) HAP-IR scheduling may impact treatment efficacy. (iii) HAPs may function as IR treatment intensifiers. (iv) The spatio-temporal intra-tumoural oxygen landscape may impact HAP efficacy. Our in silico framework is based on an on-lattice, hybrid, multiscale cellular automaton spanning three spatial dimensions. The mathematical model for tumour spheroid growth is parameterised by multicellular tumour spheroid (MCTS) data. When cancer patients present with solid tumours, the tumours often contain regions that are oxygen-deprived or, in other words, hypoxic. Hypoxic tumour regions are more resistant to conventional anti-cancer therapies, such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and therefore tumour hypoxia may complicate treatments. Hypoxia-activated prodrugs constitute a conceptually elegant approach to not only overcome, but better yet, exploit tumour hypoxia. Hypoxia-activated prodrugs are drugs that act as Trojan horses, they are theoretically harmless vehicles that are converted into warheads when they reach their targets: hypoxic tumour regions. Despite being conceptually clever and successful in experimental settings, hypoxia-activated prodrugs are yet to achieve successful results in clinical trials. It has been hypothesised that this lack of clinical success can, in part, be explained by an insufficiently stringent clinical screening selection of determining which tumours are suitable for hypoxia-activated prodrug treatments. In this article, we investigate how simulated tumours with different oxygen landscapes respond to anti-cancer treatments that include hypoxia-activated prodrugs, either alone or in combination with radiotherapy. Our simulation framework is based on a mathematical model that describes how individual cancer cells in a tumour divide and respond to treatments. We demonstrate that the efficacy of hypoxia-activated prodrugs depends on both the treatment scheduling and the oxygen landscapes of the simulated tumours.